ÿþ<html> <head> <meta HTTP-EQUIV="Content-Language" CONTENT="en"> <meta HTTP-EQUIV="Content-Type" CONTENT="text/html; charset=windows-1250"> <meta NAME="GENERATOR" CONTENT="Microsoft FrontPage 5.0"> <meta NAME="ProgId" CONTENT="FrontPage.Editor.Document"> <link REL="stylesheet" TYPE="text/css" HREF="../stylesheets/main.css" TITLE="1024"> <link REL="alternate stylesheet" TYPE="text/css" HREF="../stylesheets/main2.css" TITLE="800"> <link REL="stylesheet" HREF="../stylesheets/tooltip.css" TYPE="text/css" /> <script TYPE="text/javascript" SRC="../stylesheets/tooltip.js"></script> <title>1.3.4.1 Verbs </title> </head> <body> <!--webbot bot="Include" U-Include="../Glossary/glossary.htm" TAG="BODY" startspan --> <div id="adjective" class="tip"><h4>adjective</h4> <p>a constituent with the feature composition: [+N, +V,  F] modifying nouns, e.g. <i>mad</i> in <i>mad cow</i>. These constituents cannot have nominal complements, their semantically nominal complement must appear as a Prepositional Phrase with the rescue strategy of <i>of</i>-insertion.</p></div> <div id="adverb" class="tip"><h4>adverb</h4> <p>a constituent with the feature composition [+N, +V,  F] used to modify a verb (as in <i>everything went smoothly</i>) or a sentence (as in <i>Unfortunately, I did not pass the first exam</i>). In this approach adverbs and adjectives belong to the same category, the difference between them being what they modify.</p></div> <div id="agent" class="tip"><h4>agent</h4> <p>one of the thematic or theta-roles, where the argument deliberately performs an action, as <i>Jamie</i> in <i>Jamie sang a song</i> or <i>Robert</i> in <i>Robert kicked the cat.</i> In terms of the UTAH the agentive theta-role is assigned to the specifier position of vP, similarly to experiencer arguments.</p></div> <div id="agreement" class="tip"><h4>agreement</h4> <p>a syntactic process whereby certain constituents must share certain features, e.g. subjects must agree with the inflection on the verb in person and number.</p></div> <div id="argument" class="tip"><h4>arguments</h4> <p>the participants minimally involved in an action defined by the predicate. The complements and the subject, the latter also called an external argument.</p></div> <div id="aspect" class="tip"><h4>aspect</h4> <p>a semantic property of verbs expressing how a certain event is viewed. See lexical aspect and grammatical aspect.</p></div> <div id="base_form" class="tip"><h4>base form</h4> <p>the (at least apparently) uninflected form of the verb. it can be finite (like in <i>I like chocolate</i> where a zero form of the inflection indicates SG1 agreement) <i>or</i> non-finite (like in <i>I may invite Jamie</i> where a verb form also called the bare infinitive is used, no inflection whatsoever is present on the verb, the inflectional head position is occupied by the modal auxiliary <i>may</i>).</p></div> <div id="complex_transitive_verb" class="tip"><h4>complex transitive verb</h4> <p>a verb with a nominal and a prepositional complement, e.g. <i>put (the newspaper on the desk)</i></p></div> <div id="distribution" class="tip"><h4>distribution</h4> <p>the set of positions that the grammar determines to be possible for a given category. Words that distribute in the same way will belong to the same categories, words that distribute differently will belong to different categories.</p></div> <div id="ditransitive_verb" class="tip"><h4>ditransitive verb</h4> <p>a verb with two nominal complements, e.g. <i>give</i>.</p></div> <div id="[±F]" class="tip"><h4>[±F]</h4> <p>one of the three basic binary features on which all categories can be defined. With the help of these features we can explain why we have the categories that we do and also describe how these categories are related. With the help of the three binary features we can predict what kinds of categories are possible in human language, we can give an exclusive list of them. [±F] is a feature used to distinguish between functional and thematic categories. [ F] categories have thematic content and [+F] categories do not. The categories with [+F] feature are the following: inflections, complementisers, determiners and degree adverbs. Certain categories are unspecified for the [±F] feature, see underspecification.</p></div> <div id="generative_grammar" class="tip"><h4>generative grammar</h4> <p>a grammar containing rules with the help of which we can generate all and only the well-formed expressions of a language (therefore excluding the ungrammatical structures). </p></div> <div id="inflection" class="tip"><h4>inflection</h4> <p>(a) a morpheme added to the end of words of a given category in sentence structure as required by the given structure, e.g. <i> s</i> in <i>Peter like s his dog</i> or <i> er</i> in <i>Peter is clever er than Tony.</i> </p> <p> (b) the head of an Inflectional Phrase. It can be realised as a modal auxiliary or a zero agreement morpheme. Information about tense can be found in a separate vP directly under IP.</p></div> <div id="intransitive_verb" class="tip"><h4>intransitive verb</h4> <p>a verb without a nominal complement (the object), e.g. <i>ski</i>. Its subject is either an agent or an experiencer, i.e. one of the theta-roles assigned to the specifier of a vP. Occasionally intransitive verbs appear with a cognate object.</p></div> <div id="irregular" class="tip"><h4>irregular</h4> <p>cannot be described with the help of a rule, exceptional.</p></div> <div id="language" class="tip"><h4>language</h4> <p>a system that enables people who speak it to produce and understand linguistic expressions.</p></div> <div id="lexical_entry" class="tip"><h4>lexical entry</h4> <p>a collection of the idiosyncratic properties of lexical items.</p></div> <div id="lexical_verb" class="tip"><h4>lexical verb</h4> <p>a verb with lexical content as opposed to one having grammatical function in the structure.</p></div> <div id="morpheme" class="tip"><h4>morpheme</h4> <p>the smallest meaningful unit. Words can be made up of one or more morphemes. See also bound morpheme, free morpheme.</p></div> <div id="[±N]" class="tip"><h4>[±N]</h4> <p>one of the three basic binary features on which all categories can be defined. With the help of these features we can explain why we have the categories that we do and also describe how these categories are related. With the help of the three binary features we can predict what kinds of categories are possible in human language, we can give an exclusive list of them. Since we want to define verbs and nouns as polar opposites the abstract binary features [±N] and [±V] were introduced, though obviously they do not mean noun and verb and are used to define other categories besides nouns and verbs. A property linked to the [ N] feature is the ability to have a nominal complement. The categories with [+N] feature are the following: a. thematic: nouns, adjectives; b. functional: determiners, degree adverbs; unspecified for the [F] value: post-determiners, measure nouns.</p></div> <div id="number" class="tip"><h4>number</h4> <p>a contrast between singular and plural as in <i>a shirt/several shirts.</i> The English regular plural marker is <i> s.</i></p></div> <div id="one-place_predicate" class="tip"><h4>one-place predicate</h4> <p>a predicate with one argument, e.g. <i>walk</i>.</p></div> <div id="patient" class="tip"><h4>patient</h4> <p>one of the thematic or theta-roles where the argument is affected by the action described by the verb, e.g. in <i>Peter stroked the cat</i> the cat is directly affected by this activity.</p></div> <div id="perfect_aspect" class="tip"><h4>perfect aspect</h4> <p>an action is viewed as being completed, e.g. in <i>I have written my homework.</i></p></div> <div id="phonology" class="tip"><h4>phonology</h4> <p>the study of the sound patterns of language.</p></div> <div id="predicate" class="tip"><h4>predicate</h4> <p>the part of the clause excluding the subject giving information about the subject: <i>Mary [is clever/likes chocolate/is waiting for Jamie/was in bed/is a university student].</i></p></div> <div id="preposition" class="tip"><h4>preposition</h4> <p>a syntactic unit preceding its complement, the most often a DP defining a special syntactic and/or semantic relationship between the complement and another constituent: <i>cat in the bag/grapes of wrath/tea without sugar/a reduction of taxes.</i> Feature composition: [ F,  N,  V].</p></div> <div id="prepositional_verb" class="tip"><h4>prepositional verb</h4> <p>a verb with a prepositional complement, e.g. <i>look at sg</i></p></div> <div id="progressive_aspect" class="tip"><h4>progressive aspect</h4> <p>the event is viewed as being in progress, e.g. <i>I was having a bath when my sister arrived.</i> Having a bath was an activity in progress when the other past activity happened.</p></div> <div id="regular" class="tip"><h4>regular</h4> <p>can be described with the help of a rule, e.g. the regular plural form of nominal expressions is formed by adding the plural morpheme <i> s.</i> </p></div> <div id="semantics" class="tip"><h4>semantics</h4>the study of meaning. It covers both lexical meaning and the meaning of sentences with special emphasis on their truth conditions (under what circumstances a sentence is true/false).</div> <div id="subcategorisation_frame" class="tip"><h4>subcategorisation frame</h4> <p>that part of the lexical entry that states the categorial status of the complement.</p></div> <div id="subcategory" class="tip"><h4>subcategory</h4> <p>a category under a main category, e.g. the category of intransitive verbs is a subcategory of the verbal category.</p></div> <div id="tense" class="tip"><h4>tense</h4> <p>a syntactic category with the help of which we can locate an event or situation in time. In syntactic representation information about tense can be found within the vP appearing directly under the IP in the form of -s, -ed or the zero tense morpheme.</p></div> <div id="theta-grid" class="tip"><h4>theta-grid</h4> <p>that part of a predicate s lexical entry which informs us about what theta-roles the predicate has.</p></div> <div id="theta-role" class="tip"><h4>theta role</h4> <p>the semantic role of the participants as required by the predicate. E.g. verbs define what kind of semantic relationship is to be established between the verb itself and the arguments of the verb, and arguments are selected accordingly. The verb <i>kick</i> calls for an agent subject, so its subject position cannot be occupied by e.g. <i>my CD-player.</i></p></div> <div id="three-place_predicate" class="tip"><h4>three-place predicate</h4> <p>a predicate with three arguments, e.g. <i>give</i>.</p></div> <div id="transitive_verb" class="tip"><h4>transitive verb</h4> <p>a verb with a nominal complement, e.g. <i>read, buy</i>. The agentive subject occupies the specifier position of vP, the theme object occupies the specifier position of VP. </p></div> <div id="two-place_predicate" class="tip"><h4>two-place predicate</h4> <p>a predicate with two arguments, e.g. <i>write</i>.</p></div> <div id="[±V]" class="tip"><h4>[±V]</h4> <p>one of the three basic binary features on which all categories can be defined. With the help of these features we can explain why we have the categories that we do and also describe how these categories are related. With the help of the three binary features we can predict what kinds of categories are possible in human language, we can give an exclusive list of them. Since we want to define verbs and nouns as polar opposites the abstract binary features [±N] and [±V] were introduced, though obviously they do not mean noun and verb and are used to define other categories besides nouns and verbs. The categories with [±V] feature are the following: a. thematic: verbs, prepositions; b. functional: inflections, degree adverbs, aspectual auxiliaries; unspecified for the [F] value: aspectual auxiliaries, post-determiners.</p></div> <div id="verb" class="tip"><h4>verb</h4> <p>a word used to describe an event or situation that can appear in one of the five verb forms. Feature composition: [ N, +V,  F].</p></div> <!--webbot bot="Include" i-checksum="64094" endspan --> <div CLASS="container"> <!--webbot bot="Include" U-Include="../stylesheets/header.htm" TAG="BODY" startspan --> <SCRIPT LANGUAGE="javascript"> if (screen.width == 800) { var i, a, main; for(i=0; (a = document.getElementsByTagName("link")[i]); i++) { if(a.getAttribute("rel").indexOf("style") != -1 && a.getAttribute("title")) { a.disabled = true; if(a.getAttribute("title") == "800") a.disabled = false; } } } </SCRIPT> <div class="header"> <div class="navi"> <a href="1.3.4.htm"><img src="../_derived/back_cmp_corporat000_back.gif" width="100" height="20" border="0" alt="previous" align="middle"></a> <a href="1.3.4.2.htm"><img src="../_derived/next_cmp_corporat000_next.gif" width="100" height="20" border="0" alt="next" align="middle"></a> </div><h1 class="header">Basic English Syntax with Exercises</h1> </div> <div class="left"> <div id="vertcontainer"> <ul id="vertlist"> <li id="active0"><a href="../index.htm">Home</a></li> <li id="active"><a href="../contents.htm">Contents</a></li> <li><a href="../Glossary/gloss.htm">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="../Glossary/lindex.htm">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="../Glossary/nindex.htm">Names</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <!--webbot bot="Include" i-checksum="47125" endspan --> <div CLASS="content"> <div ID="navcontainer"> <ul ID="navlist"> <li> <a href="1.3.4.htm">1.3.4&nbsp; The Thematic categories</a></li> <li> <a href="1.3.htm">1.3 A Typology of Word Categories</a></li> <li> <a href="Chapter1.htm">Chapter 1 Grammatical Foundations: Words</a></li> </ul> </div> <h1>1.3.4.1 <i><b><a onmouseout="popUp(event,'verb')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'verb')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#verb">Verbs</a></b></i> </h1> <p class="first"><a name="100"></a>Verbs, as discussed above, are categorised as [<a onmouseout="popUp(event,'[±F]')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'[±F]')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#[±F]"> F</a>, <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'[±N]')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'[±N]')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#[±N]"> N</a>, <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'[±V]')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'[±V]')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#[±V]">+V</a>] elements. In this section we will introduce a number of properties peculiar to this category.</p> <p class="normal"><a name="101"></a>We have already seen that verbs take morphemes which express <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'tense')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'tense')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#tense">tense</a>:</p> <table class="example"><tr><td class="number">(50)</td><td class="letter"></td><td>smil<b>ed</b>/smile<b>s</b></td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter"></td><td>reach<b>ed</b>/reach<b>es</b></td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter"></td><td>requir<b>ed</b>/require<b>s</b></td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter"></td><td>etc.</td></tr></table> <p class="first"><a name="102"></a>The different forms of a word are known as its <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'inflection')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'inflection')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#inflection"><b>inflections</b></a> and we say that verbs inflect for <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'tense')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'tense')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#tense">tense</a> in that different forms represent tense distinctions. As discussed earlier, not all inflectional forms are <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'regular')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'regular')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#regular">regular</a> and, especially in the past tense, we have <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'irregular')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'irregular')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#irregular">irregular</a> forms:</p> <table class="example"><tr><td class="number">(51)</td><td class="letter"></td><td>sink  sank</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter"></td><td>think  thought</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter"></td><td>hit  hit</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter"></td><td>etc.</td></tr></table> <p class="first"><a name="103"></a>We are not so much concerned with morphological or phonetic form in this book, so we can think of these past <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'tense')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'tense')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#tense">tense</a> verbs as abstractly being a <b>stem</b>, i.e. the <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'lexical_verb')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'lexical_verb')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#lexical_verb">lexical verb</a>, plus a past tense <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'morpheme')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'morpheme')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#morpheme">morpheme</a> which we will represent as <i> ed</i> though obviously this is not supposed to indicate a pronunciation:</p> <table class="example"><tr><td class="number">(52)</td><td class="letter"></td><td>sink+ed</td><td>(= sank)</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter"></td><td>think+ed</td><td>(= thought)</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter"></td><td>hit+ed</td><td>(= hit)</td></tr></table> <p class="normal"><a name="104"></a>Virtually all verbs have a past <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'tense')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'tense')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#tense">tense</a> form, with only a handful of very exceptional cases, such as <i>lightening</i> used as a verb, which can only appear in this <i>ing</i> form:</p> <table class="example"><tr><td class="number">(53)</td><td class="letter">a</td><td>it is lightening</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter">b</td><td>*it lightens</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter">c</td><td>*it lightened</td></tr></table> <p class="normal"><a name="105"></a>The present <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'tense')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'tense')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#tense">tense</a> <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'inflection')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'inflection')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#inflection">inflection</a> is slightly different to the past tense one. Compare the examples in the following:</p> <table class="example"><tr><td class="number">(54)</td><td class="letter">a</td><td>Charlie chopp<b>ed</b> the cheese</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter">b</td><td>I chopp<b>ed</b> the cheese</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter">c</td><td>you chopp<b>ed</b> the cheese</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter">d</td><td>they chopp<b>ed</b> the cheese</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter">e</td><td>etc.</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter"></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> (55)</td><td class="letter">a</td><td>Charlie chop<b>s</b> the cheese</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter">b</td><td>I chop<b>&Oslash;</b> the cheese</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter">c</td><td>you chop<b>&Oslash;</b> the cheese</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter">d</td><td>they chop<b>&Oslash;</b> the cheese</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter">e</td><td>etc.</td></tr></table> <p class="first"><a name="106"></a>In (54) the verb has the same past <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'tense')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'tense')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#tense">tense</a> <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'inflection')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'inflection')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#inflection">inflection</a> in all permutations of the sentence, but in (55) there is a difference between the first example and all the others. This corresponds to the fact that the <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'argument')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'argument')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#argument">argument</a> which precedes the verb in the first case is third person and singular and in all other cases this argument is either plural or first or second person (I or you). This argument is called the <b>subject</b> and we will discuss its nature and properties in the next chapter. For now we will simply use the term to refer to the argument in front of the verb without further discussion. The morphological phenomenon shown in (55) is known as <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'agreement')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'agreement')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#agreement"><b>agreement</b></a>. We say that the verb agrees with certain features (<a onmouseout="popUp(event,'number')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'number')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#number">number</a> and person) of the subject (later on, we will see that it is the inflection that agrees with the subject and that this is independent of the verb). English does not demonstrate much in the way of agreement inflection. For the vast majority of verbs it is only in the present tense and with a third person singular argument that the verb has an agreement form. The exception is the verb to <i>be</i>, for which there are three present tense forms (first person singular, third person singular and the rest) and two past tense forms (first and third person singular and the rest):</p> <table class="example"><tr><td class="number">(56)</td><td class="letter">a</td><td>I <i>am</i> ready</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter">b</td><td>he <i>is</i> ready</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter">c</td><td>you/we/they <i>are</i> ready</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter"></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> (57)</td><td class="letter">a</td><td>I <i>was</i> ready</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter">c</td><td>he <i>was</i> ready</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter">d</td><td>you <i>were</i> ready</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter">e</td><td>they <i>were</i> ready</td></tr></table> <p class="first"><a name="107"></a>Some <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'language')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'language')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#language">languages</a> show a good deal more <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'agreement')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'agreement')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#agreement">agreement</a> phenomena than English. Consider the <a class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/lindex.htm#Hungarian">Hungarian</a> paradigm:</p> <table class="example"><tr><td class="number">(58)</td><td class="letter">a</td><td>én vág<b>om</b> a sajtot</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter"></td><td>I cut the cheese</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter">b</td><td>te vág<b>od</b> a sajtot</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter"></td><td>you & </td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter">c</td><td>õ vág<b>ja</b> a sajtot</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter"></td><td>he/she ...</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter">d</td><td>mi vág<b>juk</b> a sajtot</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter"></td><td>we ...</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter">e</td><td>ti vág<b>játok</b> a sajtot</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter"></td><td>you (pl.) ...</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter">f</td><td>õk vág<b>ják</b> a sajtot</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter"></td><td>they ...</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter"></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> (59)</td><td class="letter">a</td><td>én vág<b>tam</b> a sajtot</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter">b</td><td>te vág<b>tad</b> a sajtot</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter">c</td><td>õ vág<b>ta</b> a sajtot</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter">d</td><td>mi vág<b>tuk</b> a sajtot</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter">e</td><td>ti vág<b>tátok</b> a sajtot</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter">f</td><td>õk vág<b>ták</b> a sajtot</td></tr></table> <p class="normal"><a name="108"></a>The English verb has other inflectional forms expressing things other than <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'tense')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'tense')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#tense">tense</a>. For example there are <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'perfect_aspect')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'perfect_aspect')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#perfect_aspect">perfect</a> and <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'progressive_aspect')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'progressive_aspect')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#progressive_aspect">progressive aspectual</a> forms:</p> <table class="example"><tr><td class="number">(60)</td><td class="letter"></td><td><b>past</b></td><td><b>perfect</b></td><td><b>progressive</b></td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter"></td><td>went</td><td>has gone</td><td>is going</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter"></td><td>drove</td><td>has driven</td><td>is driving</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter"></td><td>hoped</td><td>has hoped</td><td>is hoping</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter"></td><td>put</td><td>has put</td><td>is putting</td></tr></table> <p class="first"><a name="109"></a>While <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'tense')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'tense')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#tense">tense</a> typically places an event in time, <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'aspect')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'aspect')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#aspect">aspect</a> refers to the process of the event itself: whether it has stopped or is still going on, for example. <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'perfect_aspect')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'perfect_aspect')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#perfect_aspect">Perfect aspect</a> often denotes that an event has finished while <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'progressive_aspect')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'progressive_aspect')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#progressive_aspect">progressive</a> denotes that it is still continuing:</p> <table class="example"><tr><td class="number">(61)</td><td class="letter">a</td><td>I have read the book (but I m not doing it now)</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter">b</td><td>I am reading the book (it s still going on)</td></tr></table> <p class="normal"><a name="110"></a>As we can see from the  perfect column in (51), there is also a good deal of <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'irregular')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'irregular')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#irregular">irregularity</a> with this inflectional form. As before, we will envisage this as an abstract process in which a verbal stem and a <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'morpheme')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'morpheme')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#morpheme">morpheme</a> are combined:</p> <table class="example"><tr><td class="number">(62)</td><td class="letter"></td><td>go+en</td><td>(= gone)</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter"></td><td>drive+en</td><td>(= driven)</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter"></td><td>hope+en</td><td>(= hoped)</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter"></td><td>put+en</td><td>(= put)</td></tr></table> <p class="first"><a name="111"></a>The <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'progressive_aspect')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'progressive_aspect')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#progressive_aspect">progressive aspect</a> is fortunately more <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'regular')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'regular')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#regular">regular</a> and, in fact, it is always formed by adding <i>ing</i> to the stem. Finally, verbs have a passive form as well. This is always identical to the <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'perfect_aspect')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'perfect_aspect')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#perfect_aspect">perfective</a> however:</p> <table class="example"><tr><td class="number">(63)</td><td class="letter">a</td><td>he had driven the car</td><td>the car was driven down the road</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter">b</td><td>he had hoped to leave</td><td>it was hoped that he would leave</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter">c</td><td>he had put his trousers on</td><td>his trousers were put on</td></tr></table> <id="112">To summarise, there are five forms in which an English verb can appear: the <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'base_form')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'base_form')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#base_form">base form</a> (uninflected), the past <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'tense')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'tense')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#tense">tense</a> form, the third person singular present form, the <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'perfect_aspect')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'perfect_aspect')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#perfect_aspect">perfective</a> (and passive) form and the <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'progressive_aspect')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'progressive_aspect')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#progressive_aspect">progressive</a> form. <table class="example"><tr><td class="number" style="vertical-align: top">(64)</td> <td class="letter" valign="top"></td><td valign="top"><b>base</b></td> <td valign="top"><b>past</b></td><td valign="top"><b>3.s.present</b></td> <td valign="top"><b>perfective/</b><p><b>progressive</b></td><td valign="top"><b>passive</b></td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> &nbsp;</td><td class="letter">&nbsp;</td><td>see</td><td>saw</td><td>sees</td><td>seen</td><td>seeing</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter"></td><td>say</td><td>said</td><td>says</td><td>said</td><td>saying</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter"></td><td>stop</td><td>stopped</td><td>stops</td><td>stopped</td><td>stopping</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter"></td><td>strew</td><td>strewed</td><td>strews</td><td>strewn</td><td>strewing</td></tr></table> <p class="first"><a name="113"></a>Any word which inflects in this way will be a verb.</p> <p class="normal"><a name="114"></a>We cannot properly address the issue of the <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'distribution')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'distribution')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#distribution">distribution</a> of word categories until we have introduced the organising principles of English sentences, to which we turn in the following chapter. However, the issue of the <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'subcategory')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'subcategory')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#subcategory">subcategorisation</a> of verbs, which has a role in determining verb distribution patterns, can be discussed here. Recall from above that we pointed out that different verbs seem to be able to be followed by different things:</p> <table class="example"><tr><td class="number">(65)</td><td class="letter">a</td><td>the villain laughed</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter">b</td><td>the hero defeated the villain</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter"></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> (66)</td><td class="letter">a</td><td>*the villain laughed the city</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter">b</td><td>*the hero defeated</td></tr></table> <p class="first"><a name="115"></a>To some extent, this is connected to the properties of the verb as a <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'predicate')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'predicate')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#predicate">predicate</a>: <i>laugh</i> is a <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'one-place_predicate')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'one-place_predicate')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#one-place_predicate">one-place predicate</a> and its only <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'argument')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'argument')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#argument">argument</a>, an <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'agent')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'agent')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#agent">agent</a>, tends to precede it, while <i>defeat</i> is a <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'two-place_predicate')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'two-place_predicate')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#two-place_predicate">two-place predicate</a> and takes its agent to the left and the <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'patient')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'patient')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#patient">patient</a> to the right. If we consider a <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'three-place_predicate')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'three-place_predicate')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#three-place_predicate">three-place predicate</a>, a pattern begins to emerge:</p> <table class="example"><tr><td class="number">(67)</td><td class="letter"></td><td>the mayor gave the hero a reward</td></tr></table> <p class="first"><a name="116"></a>In this case, one of the <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'argument')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'argument')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#argument">arguments</a> appears to the left and the others are on the right. It seems that there is always one argument on the left and any other argument must follow the verb. We call the arguments which follow the verb the verb s <b>complements</b>. It appears that there is a special relationship that holds between a verb and its complements. Consider the following:</p> <table class="example"><tr><td class="number">(68)</td><td class="letter">a</td><td>the villain awaited his trial</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter">b</td><td>the villain waited for his trial</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter"></td><td></td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> (69)</td><td class="letter">a</td><td>*the villain awaited for his trial</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter">b</td><td>*the villain waited his trial</td></tr></table> <p class="first"><a name="117"></a>What we see by these examples is that different verbs are followed by different complements. The verb <i>await</i> must be followed by a nominal complement (i.e. one expressed with a noun: his <i>trial</i>) whereas the verb <i>wait</i> must be followed by a <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'preposition')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'preposition')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#preposition">prepositional</a> complement (expressed with a preposition: <i>for</i> his trial). Although there is often a connection between the thematic interpretation of the complement <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'argument')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'argument')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#argument">argument</a> and its category, <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'patient')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'patient')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#patient">patients</a> tend to be nominal and locations tend to be expressed by prepositional complements for example, it is not always possible to predict the category of the complement from its <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'theta-role')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'theta-role')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#theta-role">thematic role</a>. In (68) for example, the two complements seem to be interpreted fairly similarly, but still they are expressed by complements of different categorial statuses. It follows that the category of the complement should be stated as a separate piece of information in a verb s <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'lexical_entry')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'lexical_entry')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#lexical_entry">lexical entry</a>:</p> <table class="example"><tr><td class="number">(70)</td><td class="letter"></td><td><i>await</i></td><td><b>category:</b></td> <td colspan="2">[ F,  N, +V]</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter"></td><td></td><td><b>&#920;-grid:</b></td><td>&lt;agent,</td><td>goal&gt;</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter"></td><td></td><td><b>subcat:</b></td><td></td><td>[nominal]</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter"></td><td><i>wait</i></td><td><b>category:</b></td> <td colspan="2">[ F,  N, +V]</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter"></td><td></td><td><b>&#920;-grid:</b></td><td>&lt;agent,</td><td>goal&gt;</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter"></td><td></td><td><b>subcat:</b></td><td></td><td>[prepositional]</td></tr></table> <p class="first"><a name="118"></a>What is represented in these <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'lexical_entry')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'lexical_entry')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#lexical_entry">lexical entries</a> is that the two verbs are both <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'two-place_predicate')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'two-place_predicate')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#two-place_predicate">two-place predicates</a> taking <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'agent')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'agent')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#agent">agent</a> and goal (something that an action is directed towards) <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'argument')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'argument')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#argument">arguments</a>, but that the goal of <i>await</i> must be nominal while that of <i>wait</i> must be <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'preposition')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'preposition')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#preposition">prepositional</a>. The part of the lexical entry that states the categorial status of the complement is known as a <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'subcategorisation_frame')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'subcategorisation_frame')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#subcategorisation_frame"><b>subcategorisation frame</b></a>. Thus a lexical entry for a typical verb will consist of a <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'theta-grid')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'theta-grid')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#theta-grid">theta-grid</a> and a subcategorisation frame in addition to <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'phonology')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'phonology')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#phonology">phonological</a> and <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'semantics')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'semantics')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#semantics">semantic</a> information.</p> <p class="normal"><a name="119"></a>Traditionally, verbs which have nominal complements are called <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'transitive_verb')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'transitive_verb')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#transitive_verb"><b>transitive</b></a> and those without <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'intransitive_verb')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'intransitive_verb')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#intransitive_verb"><b>intransitive</b></a>. The verb <i>await</i> is a transitive verb and <i>wait</i> is intransitive. However, another kind of intransitive verb has no complement at all:</p> <table class="example"><tr><td class="number">(71)</td><td class="letter">a</td><td>the villain laughed</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter">b</td><td>the dragon flew</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter">c</td><td>Susan slept</td></tr></table> <p class="first"><a name="120"></a>These verbs are <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'one-place_predicate')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'one-place_predicate')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#one-place_predicate">one-place predicates</a> with their <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'argument')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'argument')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#argument">arguments</a> on the left. Their <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'lexical_entry')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'lexical_entry')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#lexical_entry">lexical entries</a> might be represented as follows:</p> <table class="example"><tr><td class="number">(72)</td><td class="letter"></td><td><i>laugh</i></td><td><b>category:</b></td><td colspan="2">[ F,  N, +V]</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter"></td><td></td><td><b>&#920;-grid:</b></td><td>&lt;agent&gt;</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter"></td><td></td><td>subcat:</td><td></td><td>[&Oslash;]</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter"></td><td><i>fly</i></td><td><b>category:</b></td><td colspan="2">[ F,  N, +V]</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter"></td><td></td><td><b>&#920;-grid:</b></td><td>&lt;agent&gt;</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter"></td><td></td><td>subcat:</td><td></td><td>[&Oslash;]</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter"></td><td><i>sleep</i></td><td><b>category:</b></td><td colspan="2">[ F,  N, +V]</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter"></td><td></td><td><b>&#920;-grid:</b></td><td>&lt;agent&gt;</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter"></td><td></td><td>subcat:</td><td></td><td>[&Oslash;]</td></tr></table> <p class="first"><a name="121"></a>Because these verbs have no complements, their <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'subcategorisation_frame')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'subcategorisation_frame')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#subcategorisation_frame">subcategorisation frames</a> are empty (as indicated by the  null symbol &Oslash;, which typically stands for the absence of content). These verbs obviously differ from those such as <i>wait</i> which have non-null subcategorisation frames. We might distinguish between the two types by referring to those in (72) as true <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'intransitive_verb')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'intransitive_verb')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#intransitive_verb">intransitives</a> and those such as <i>wait</i> as being <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'prepositional_verb')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'prepositional_verb')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#prepositional_verb"><b>prepositional</b> verbs</a>.</p> <p class="normal"><a name="122"></a>Various types of <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'transitive_verb')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'transitive_verb')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#transitive_verb">transitive verbs</a> can also be distinguished. For example there are those which take one nominal complement and those which take two:</p> <table class="example"><tr><td class="number">(73)</td><td class="letter">a</td><td>the hero fought the dragon</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter">b</td><td>the king gave the hero half the kingdom</td></tr></table> <p class="first"><a name="123"></a>The traditional term for verbs with two nominal complements is <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'ditransitive_verb')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'ditransitive_verb')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#ditransitive_verb"><b>ditransitive</b></a>. We can represent the <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'lexical_entry')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'lexical_entry')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#lexical_entry">lexical entries</a> for these verbs as follows:</p> <table class="example"><tr><td class="number">(74)</td><td class="letter"></td><td><i>fight</i></td><td><b>category:</b></td><td colspan="2">[ F,  N, +V]</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter"></td><td></td><td><b>&#920;-grid:</b></td><td>&lt;agent,</td><td>patient&gt;</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter"></td><td></td><td><b>subcat:</b></td><td></td><td>[nominal]</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter"></td><td><i>give</i></td><td><b>category:</b></td><td colspan="2">[ F,  N, +V]</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter"></td><td></td><td><b>&#920;-grid:</b></td><td>&lt;agent,</td><td>goal,</td><td> theme&gt;</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter"></td><td></td><td><b>subcat:</b></td><td></td><td>[nominal,</td><td>nominal]</td></tr></table> <p class="normal"><a name="124"></a>A further type takes both a nominal and a <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'preposition')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'preposition')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#preposition">prepositional</a> complement, known as <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'complex_transitive_verb')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'complex_transitive_verb')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#complex_transitive_verb"><b>complex transitive</b> verbs</a>:</p> <table class="example"><tr><td class="number">(75)</td><td class="letter">a</td><td colspan="4">Percy placed the penguin on the podium</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter">b</td><td><i>place</i></td><td><b>category:</b></td><td colspan="2">[ F,  N, +V]</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter"></td><td></td><td><b>&#920;-grid:</b></td><td>&lt;agent,</td><td>theme,</td><td>location&gt;</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter"></td><td></td><td><b>subcat:</b></td><td></td><td>[nominal,</td><td>prepositional]</td></tr></table> <p class="first"><a name="125"></a>Other verbs take <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'adjective')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'adjective')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#adjective">adjectival</a> or <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'adverb')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'adverb')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#adverb">adverbial</a> complements:</p> <table class="example"><tr><td class="number">(76)</td><td class="letter">a</td><td colspan="3">the judge looked mean</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter">b</td><td><i>look</i></td><td><b>category:</b></td><td colspan="2">[ F,  N, +V]</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter"></td><td></td><td><b>&#920;-grid:</b></td><td>&lt;theme,</td><td>attribute&gt;</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter"></td><td></td><td><b>subcat:</b></td><td></td><td>[adjectival]</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> &nbsp;</td><td class="letter">&nbsp;</td><td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> (77)</td><td class="letter">a</td><td colspan="4">the pianist performed passionately</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter">b</td><td><i>perform</i></td><td><b>category:</b></td><td colspan="2">[ F,  N, +V]</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter"></td><td></td><td><b>&#920;-grid:</b></td><td>&lt;agent,</td><td>manner&gt;</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter"></td><td></td><td><b>subcat:</b></td><td></td><td>[adverbial]</td></tr></table> <p class="normal"><a name="126"></a>Finally, there are verbs which are often traditionally called <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'transitive_verb')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'transitive_verb')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#transitive_verb">transitives</a>, but which do not have a nominal complement at all. These verbs take sentences as their complements.</p> <table class="example"><tr><td class="number">(78)</td><td class="letter">a</td><td>Larry left</td><td>= sentence</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter">b</td><td>Theodore thinks Larry left</td></tr></table> <p class="first"><a name="127"></a>From a <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'semantics')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'semantics')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#semantics">semantic</a> point of view, these verbs take a proposition as their complement and this obviously is expressed as a sentence. We might therefore suppose a <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'lexical_entry')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'lexical_entry')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#lexical_entry">lexical entry</a> such as the following:</p> <table class="example"><tr><td class="number">(79)</td><td class="letter"></td><td><i>think</i></td><td><b>category:</b></td><td>[ F,  N, +V]</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter"></td><td></td><td><b>&#920;-grid:</b></td><td>&lt;experiencer,</td><td>proposition&gt;</td></tr> <tr><td class="number"> </td><td class="letter"></td><td></td><td><b>subcat:</b></td><td></td><td>[sentence]</td></tr></table> <p class="first"><a name="128"></a>There is no traditional term specifically for <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'predicate')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'predicate')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#predicate">predicates</a> with sentential complements, but <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'generative_grammar')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'generative_grammar')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#generative_grammar">generative grammar</a> has not felt the need to invent one as the <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'subcategorisation_frame')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'subcategorisation_frame')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#subcategorisation_frame">subcategorisation frame</a> serves to distinguish between the different <a onmouseout="popUp(event,'subcategory')" onmouseover="popUp(event,'subcategory')" class="glosslink" href="../Glossary/gloss.htm#subcategory">subcategories</a> of verbs.</p> </div> <!--webbot bot="Include" U-Include="../stylesheets/footer.htm" TAG="BODY" startspan --> <div class="footer"> <div class="navi2"> <a href="1.3.4.htm"><img src="../_derived/back_cmp_corporat000_back.gif" width="100" height="20" border="0" alt="previous" align="middle"></a> <a href="1.3.4.2.htm"><img src="../_derived/next_cmp_corporat000_next.gif" width="100" height="20" border="0" alt="next" align="middle"></a> </div></div> <!--webbot bot="Include" i-checksum="43846" endspan --> </div> </body> </html>