2.3.1 Substitution

In this example, we have two sentences: the bishop hid his gun; the verger did so too. These two sentences are made into one sentence by placing them either side of the word and. The phenomena is known as coordination, about which we will have more to say in a little while. Given that the words did so in (90) are interpreted as meaning hid his gun, we can see that they replace the VP in the second sentence, forcing this VP to be interpreted the same as the VP of the first sentence. This is similar to the use of the pronoun in the following:

2.3.3 Coordination

5.2.7 Phrasal verbs

Much of this evidence seems to suggest that the preposition does not act as the head of a preposition phrase, but forms a unit with the verb. For example, while (124a) shows that the PP complement of a verb can be moved to the front of the clause, it seems that the particle plus the following DP cannot be moved (124b), indicating that it is perhaps not a constituent. Moreover, as we have seen in (125a) a PP can be modified by an adverb like right, but this is not possible for the particle followed by a DP (125b). Finally, we can coordinate a PP complement with another PP (126a), but we cannot coordinate the particle plus the following DP with a PP, indicating that the particle does not form a PP with the following DP. For this reason, it is often claimed that the particle forms a syntactic unit with the verb, perhaps being adjoined to it:

7.1 The structure of CP

These words form a constituent with the following IP, but are not part of its structure. So, the clause can be moved along with its complementiser, the clause and its complementiser can be replaced by a pronoun and the clause and its complementiser can be coordinated with another such string:

7.1 The structure of CP

In (2a) the clausal complement of the verb know has obviously moved from its normal complement position behind the verb to a position at the front of the sentence. As the complementiser still precedes this clause, it can be assumed to form a constituent with it. In (2b) the pronoun it is used to replace the clause that Stan saved the world. As this includes both the complementiser and the IP, we conclude that these must form a constituent. Finally, in (2c) two clauses are coordinated. That both clauses begin with a complementiser demonstrates that the complementiser forms a constituent with the following IP.

7.1 The structure of CP

The first case in (3) is fairly straightforward. The it replaces the non-finite clause there to be trouble and given that the complementiser precedes the it the pronoun replaces just the IP. The second case needs a little explanation. What is coordinated here are the two IPs there would be trouble and I could be involved. In some clauses the complementiser does not have to appear overtly, however:

7.1 The structure of CP

One possible analysis, which we will argue in favour of a little later, is that when there is no overt complementiser, there is an phonologically empty complementiser. This possibility then raises the question of what is being coordinated in (2b): is it just the IP, as we claimed, or an IP with an empty complementiser?:

7.1 The structure of CP

In the second case, the data obviously do not support the claim that the IP can be coordinated without the complementiser as both sides of the coordination contain complementisers. However, (5b) cannot be the correct analysis as the only complementiser that is allowed to be empty in this kind of situation is that and if cannot be omitted:

7.1 The structure of CP

Thus, (5b) would only be possible if the empty complementiser were a version of that. But this is not possible as, in this case, a clause beginning with if cannot coordinate with a clause beginning with that:

7.3.4 The interaction between wh-movement and inversion

Whether can be coordinated with operators like the negative and wh-pronouns:

7.4.1 The position of the relative clause inside the NP

As relative clauses seem to modify nouns we can assume that they occupy a position within the phrase headed by the noun. There is evidence that this is so as the noun and the relative clauses can be pronominalised and coordinated separately from the determiner:

7.4.1 The position of the relative clause inside the NP

Both kinds of relative clauses can be coordinated with other like constituents showing that they both form a constituent with the noun that they modify. But only the restrictive relative clause and its noun can be pronominalised by one. A possible explanation for this is that one only pronominalises N's and the string consisting of a noun and a non-restrictive clause is not an N'. This suggests that while restrictive relatives adjoin to the N', non-restrictive relatives adjoin higher up, perhaps to the NP: