Basic English Syntax with Exercises

declarative clause

1.3.3 Grammatical aspects of meaning

In the bracketed sentence here, the complementiser is if and we can see that the difference between this and the previous case is that here the sentence is interpreted as a question, not a statement as previously. The sentence beginning with that is declarative and the one beginning with if is interrogative. Given that the only difference between the two is the complementiser, it seems reasonable to assume that this is what the complementiser contributes to the meaning of the sentence. The distinction between declarative and interrogative is known as the force of the sentence and hence complementisers contribute to this aspect of sentence meaning.

1.3.5.4 Complementisers

The complementisers that and for introduce declarative clauses, i.e. ones that make statements, while if introduces interrogative clauses, ones that ask questions. We can view this in terms of a set of non-categorial features which distinguish between the complementisers. These features are [±Wh] for the force of the clause and [±Fin] for the finiteness of the clause. The [+Wh] feature (pronounced ‘double‑u aitch’) indicates interrogative, based on the fact that interrogative pronouns such as who, what, where, etc. are written with an initial ‘wh’ and the [–Wh] feature indicates declarative. [+Fin] stands for finite and [–Fin] for non-finite. Thus, we have the following classification of complementise

5.2.8 Verbs with clausal complements

As can be seen from the limited data in (139), there are a wide range of possibilities for clausal complements. Some verbs take finite clause complements (139a), while others take non-finite complements of various kinds (139b–e). Some complements are declarative (139a–e) while others are interrogative (139f). The possibilities are determined by the verb, as we would expect.

5.3 Aspectual Auxiliary Verbs

Remember, that what we are looking at there is the D-structure, before movement takes place. Thus this structure is that of a declarative VP, not an interrogative one. At S-structure the subject will move out of the vP to the clausal subject position, where it will get Case:

Chapter7 Complementiser Phrases

Above the IP the structure of the clause continues and in particular the complementisers, which a large part of this chapter will be about, are found to reside. We will see that this part of the clause structure also has its semantic impact on the interpretation of the whole sentence, mainly in terms of the notions of declarative and interrogative, i.e. whether the sentence is supposed to be making a statement or asking a question. This aspect of meaning has been referred to as the Force of the sentence.

7.1 The structure of CP

The embedded clause in (10a) is interrogative as it can act as the complement of the verb wonder and this subcategorises for interrogative complements. The clause in (10b) is declarative as it can act as the complement of the verb think which subcategorises for declarative clauses. But the only difference between the two clauses lies with the complementisers. The IP in both cases is identical. This would suggest that the interrogative/declarative nature of the clause is fixed by the complementiser and not by anything inside the IP. In other words, it is the complementiser that provides the force of the sentence. As it is heads that provide the properties of the structures they head, this demonstrates that complementisers do have a head-like status within the clause.

7.1 The structure of CP

The embedded clause in (10a) is interrogative as it can act as the complement of the verb wonder and this subcategorises for interrogative complements. The clause in (10b) is declarative as it can act as the complement of the verb think which subcategorises for declarative clauses. But the only difference between the two clauses lies with the complementisers. The IP in both cases is identical. This would suggest that the interrogative/declarative nature of the clause is fixed by the complementiser and not by anything inside the IP. In other words, it is the complementiser that provides the force of the sentence. As it is heads that provide the properties of the structures they head, this demonstrates that complementisers do have a head-like status within the clause.

7.2 The Clause as CP

Not all clauses are introduced by a complementiser. For example, subordinate declarative finite clauses may or may not be introduced by that and main clauses never have complementisers:

7.2 The Clause as CP

But while there are many verbs which take clausal complements both with or without a complementiser, it is doubtful whether the other predicted verb types exist. It seems that we have to accept a generalisation that if a verb selects for a declarative finite IP complement, it also selects for a declarative finite CP complement. It is not easy to think how we can explain this generalisation when stated in this way. There is another possible view, however. This sees all these complements as being CPs, but sometimes the complementiser is filled with an overt that and sometimes it is filled by an unpronounced complementiser:

7.3.1 Basic positions within the CP

So far we have looked mainly at declarative CPs. In this section we will turn our attention to interrogatives. There are a number of different types of interrogatives and most of them seem to make use of the CP in one way or another. The two most obvious ones are wh-questions and yes–no questions.

7.3.2 Wh-movement

We might assume that all of these phrases share a common ‘interrogative feature’ which determines their interpretation as question elements. Typically this feature is represented as [+wh] and is contrasted with [–wh] which has a declarative interpretation.

7.3.2 Wh-movement

There seem to be two interrelated motivations for wh-movement, one concerning the interpretation of the clause, and one concerning the interpretation of the wh-element itself. Let’s start with the clause. Obviously clauses are either interpreted as questions or not. Moreover, in embedded contexts the distribution of a clause will depend on its force as some verbs require an interrogative complement while others require a declarative one:

7.3.4 The interaction between wh-movement and inversion

We know that the complementiser is the head of the CP and that this provides the relevant features for the force interpretation of the sentence. Some complementisers are interrogative and some are declarative. Thus, when the clause is interrogative, presumably it has an interrogative complementiser and vice versa if the clause is declarative. In yes–no questions, therefore, we might expect the clause to have an interrogative complementiser. As we can see no complementiser in such sentences, we must assume it to be abstract. The assumption of such an element is supported by the fact that in some languages a morpheme with exactly these properties appears overtly. For example, in Japanese, a yes–no question is marked by the appearance of the morpheme ka at the end of the clause. Thus, the difference between (43a) and (43b) is that the first is declarative and the second interrogative:

7.4.2 A comparison between relative and interrogative clauses

As pointed out, in many ways the relative clause has many properties in common with a wh-interrogative. But relative clauses are not interrogative, but declarative. This is clear both from their interpretation and the fact that they may start with the complementiser that which as we have seen, introduces declarative clauses. Thus, the wh-element which starts relative and interrogative clauses seems to have a different set of features: an interrogative pronoun is [+wh] and a relative pronoun is [–wh]. One might think therefore that they are entirely different lexical elements. This is supported by the fact that in some languages there are differences between relative and interrogative pronouns. In Hungarian for instance, there is a systematic difference with relative pronouns beginning with a‑:

7.4.2 A comparison between relative and interrogative clauses

As pointed out, in many ways the relative clause has many properties in common with a wh-interrogative. But relative clauses are not interrogative, but declarative. This is clear both from their interpretation and the fact that they may start with the complementiser that which as we have seen, introduces declarative clauses. Thus, the wh-element which starts relative and interrogative clauses seems to have a different set of features: an interrogative pronoun is [+wh] and a relative pronoun is [–wh]. One might think therefore that they are entirely different lexical elements. This is supported by the fact that in some languages there are differences between relative and interrogative pronouns. In Hungarian for instance, there is a systematic difference with relative pronouns beginning with a‑: