Basic English Syntax with Exercises

imperative

3.1.2 Endocentricity

However, such expressions have a special status and there is more to them than appears at the surface. The sentence in (13) is an imperative construction in which there appears to be no subject. However it is fairly clear that there is a definite subject understood in this sentence: you! An imperative cannot be interpreted as a command given to some third person and must be interpreted as directed towards the addressee. The question is then, what is the status of the subject of such sentences: are they only ‘understood’, present at some semantic level or are they merely ‘unpronounced’ though present at the grammatical level?

3.1.2 Endocentricity

As we see from (15), a by phrase containing a reflexive is interpreted to mean ‘unaccompanied’. In (15a), the reflexive refers to Pete and so it means that he was unaccompanied in eating the pie. In contrast, in (15b) the reflexive refers to the pie and so it means that the pie was unaccompanied (by ice cream for example) when Pete ate it. (16a) is grammatical even though there is no apparent antecedent for the reflexive. It is not surprising that the reflexive should be yourself however, as, as we have said, the understood subject of an imperative is you. Yet we cannot simply say that the antecedent ‘being understood’ is enough to satisfy the requirements of the reflexive as (16c) is ungrammatical. In this case the object is absent, though it is clearly understood that something was eaten in (16b). But this understanding is not enough to license the use of the reflexive in this case. So we conclude that the missing subject in (16a) is different from the missing object in (16c) and in particular that the missing subject has a more definite presence than the missing object. This would be so if the missing subject were present as an unpronounced grammatical entity while the missing object is absent grammatically and present only at the semantic level. In conclusion then, while imperatives might look like VP clauses which lack subjects, they are in fact full clauses with unpronounced subjects.

3.2.3 Traces

We can get some understanding of this situation if we make the following assumption: when an element moves, it leaves behind a copy of itself in the extraction site. This copy is called a trace and is envisaged to be identical to the moved element in terms of its grammatical and semantic properties. Thus the category of the trace, its role in the thematic structure of the sentence and its referential properties are the same as the moved element. The main way in which the trace differs from the moved element is that the trace has no phonological content and hence is unpronounced. We have already considered the possibility of phonologically empty but grammatically active elements when we discussed imperatives at the beginning of this chapter. A trace is another such element.

4.1 Why the Noun is not the Head of the DP

There is a way to solve the problem, either way, which involves a slightly more abstract analysis. Suppose the phrases in question do have heads, but they are unpronounced. The idea of an unpronounced, phonologically ‘empty’ element has been made use of several times already in this book. For example as the understood subject of an imperative or as the trace left behind by a movement. So the idea is not without precedence. Making use of this idea, we have two opposing analyses:

4.1 Why the Noun is not the Head of the DP

Of course, the assumption of an empty category must have other motivations than just their necessity to make the analysis work. With the empty subject of an imperative we pointed out that this could act as the antecedent of a reflexive pronoun and with the trace we demonstrated how this prevents other elements from moving into a position vacated by another moved element. Is there any independent justification for either of the empty heads in (27) or (28)? If we consider the empty noun in (28), the only justification this has is to provide a head for the NP. The entire semantic content and the grammatical features of the phrase are contributed by the pronoun itself: the NP is third person singular because the pronoun is third person singular and the NP has a reference which is determined by the pronoun. Thus there is no independent support for the existence of this empty noun.